Century overview
The world in the 19th century
1801 – 1900. 695 events across 10 regions. Below, the century’s most significant events by region — what each part of the world was doing during the same stretch of time.
Europe
Showing 6 of 340 events from this century
- Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of global military conflicts from 1803 to 1815 between the First French Empire and shifting coalitions of European powers. Originating in the political upheavals following the French Revolution, the wars primarily took place in Europe but extended to the Middle East, Asia-Pacific, and beyond. They are divided into seven major campaigns, including the War of the Third Coalition and the Peninsular War. Napoleon was ultimately defeated, the French Empire dissolved, and the European balance of power restored.
- War of the Fourth Coalition
In October 1806, Prussia, opposing Napoleon's reorganization of Germany, declared war on France, forming the Fourth Coalition with Britain, Russia, and Sweden. French forces crushed the Prussian army at Jena–Auerstedt, then shifted focus to Russia. After the bloody Battle of Eylau in February 1807, Napoleon decisively defeated the Russians at Friedland in June, forcing peace and ending the coalition.
- Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil
In November 1807, the Portuguese royal family and nearly 10,000 attendants sailed from Lisbon to the colony of Brazil. Departure was delayed to 29 November, just two days before Napoleonic forces invaded Portugal. This relocation kept the Portuguese court in Brazil for over a decade, profoundly influencing Brazil's path to independence.
- French invasion of Russia
In 1812, Napoleon led the French army and its allies to invade the Russian Empire, triggered by Russia's withdrawal from the Continental System. Crossing the Niemen in June, they occupied Moscow after the Battle of Borodino, but were forced to retreat due to supply shortages and severe winter, suffering devastating losses. The campaign claimed around a million lives in under six months.
- Battle of Vitoria
On 21 June 1813, an allied army of British, Portuguese and Spanish forces under the Marquess of Wellington defeated the French army under Joseph Bonaparte and Marshal Jourdan near Vitoria, Spain, forcing the French to withdraw from most of Spain and leading to the end of the Peninsular War.
- War of the Sixth Coalition
The War of the Sixth Coalition was fought in Central Europe in the early 1810s between the French Empire and a coalition of European powers. After France's failed invasion of Russia, Prussia and Austria joined the coalition. Following the Battle of Leipzig in autumn 1813, fighting moved into France, leading to Napoleon's abdication in 1814 and his exile.
North America
Showing 6 of 134 events from this century
- Outbreak of the American Civil War
The American Civil War broke out in 1861, stemming from political conflicts between free states in the North and slave states in the South. Southern states seceded from the Union, forming the Confederate States of America, leading to a full-scale civil war.
- Battle of Antietam
On September 17, 1862, the Battle of Antietam (also known as the Battle of Sharpsburg) took place in Maryland. It was the first major field army engagement of the American Civil War fought on Union soil. The battle remains the bloodiest single day in U.S. history, with approximately 23,000 combined casualties. Although the Union forces suffered heavier losses, the strategic victory halted the Confederate invasion of Maryland and forced Robert E. Lee’s retreat into Virginia, marking a turning point in the war.
- USS Monitor built and commissioned
During the American Civil War, the USS Monitor, the first ironclad warship of the US Navy, was completed and commissioned in early 1862. Its revolutionary design featured a revolving turret by inventor Theodore Timby. In March that year, it fought CSS Virginia at the Battle of Hampton Roads, marking the transition from sail to ironclad warfare.
- Consecration of the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity, Quebec
In 1804, the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity was consecrated in Quebec City, becoming the first Anglican cathedral outside the British Isles. Belonging to the newly formed Diocese of Quebec, its construction had begun in 1800, marking the expansion of the Anglican Church in North America.
- Construction of Castle Clinton begins
In 1808, construction of Castle Clinton began in Battery Park at Manhattan's southern tip. The circular sandstone fort was built on the orders of New York Governor DeWitt Clinton to strengthen harbor defenses.
- Spanish American wars of independence
A series of armed conflicts in the early 19th century across Spanish American colonies, aiming to end Spanish rule and achieve political independence. The conflicts were fought primarily between Royalists, who supported a unitary Spanish monarchy, and Patriots, who sought autonomy or independence. This ultimately led to the separation and independence of most of Spanish America, occurring roughly between 1808 and 1833, and closely linked to the Napoleonic Wars and the Peninsular War in Spain.
East Asia
Showing 6 of 49 events from this century
- First Opium War begins
In 1839, military conflict erupted between the British Empire and Qing China over the opium trade ban, lasting until 1842. The British government, citing free trade and diplomatic equality, supported merchants' compensation claims, and its superior navy defeated the Chinese. The war ended with China being forced to open its trade and cede Hong Kong, marking the beginning of modern Chinese history.
- Signing of the Treaty of Nanjing
In 1842, the Treaty of Nanjing was signed between the Qing dynasty and Great Britain, ending the First Opium War. It opened five ports to trade, ceded Hong Kong Island, and imposed indemnities, marking the beginning of unequal treaties for China.
- Establishment of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom
In 1851, Hong Xiuquan, Feng Yunshan, and others launched an uprising in Jintian, Guangxi, establishing the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. The theocratic monarchy aimed to overthrow the Qing dynasty and later made Nanjing its capital in 1853.
- Signing of the Convention of Kanagawa
On March 31, 1854, the Tokugawa Shogunate of Japan and the United States signed the Convention of Kanagawa (Japan–US Treaty of Peace and Amity) in Yokohama. The plenipotentiaries were Hayashi Fukusai and Commodore Matthew Perry. The treaty opened the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American vessels, ensured assistance to American castaways, and ended Japan's over two-century policy of seclusion. It set a precedent for unequal treaties imposed by Western powers in East Asia.
- Second Opium War
Between 1856 and 1860, the United Kingdom and France waged a war against Qing China over disputes including opium trade rights. The war ended in another Qing defeat and the legalisation of the opium trade, seen as a continuation of the First Opium War and heightening China's sense of national crisis.
- Self-Strengthening Movement Begins
Qing officials launched the Self-Strengthening Movement in 1861, aiming to strengthen China by adopting Western military technology. Though lasting until 1895, its beginning marked the start of modern industrialization and military modernization in China.
Central & South America
Showing 6 of 45 events from this century
- Founding of the Royal Portuguese Library in Rio de Janeiro
In 1810, the Royal Portuguese Library was founded in Rio de Janeiro, forming the nucleus of what would become the National Library of Brazil. Created alongside the transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil, it safeguarded royal collections. Opened to students in 1814, it became a national institution after independence and evolved into Latin America's largest library.
- Outbreak of the Paraguayan War
In late 1864, armed conflict erupted between Paraguay and Brazil over the situation in Uruguay. In 1865, Argentina and Uruguay joined Brazil to form the Triple Alliance against Paraguay. This war was the deadliest inter-state conflict in Latin American history.
- Spanish–American War
From April to August 1898, the United States fought Spain after the USS Maine sank in Havana Harbor. The war ended with the U.S. gaining sovereignty over Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, and establishing control in Cuba, making the U.S. the leading Caribbean power and bringing an end to Spain’s presence in the Americas, Asia, and the Pacific.
- War of the Oranges
In 1801, Spain, instigated by France, invaded Portugal in a brief conflict. The war ended with the Treaty of Badajoz, with Portugal ceding territory including Olivenza.
- Founding of Nelson's Dockyard
Nelson's Dockyard, located in English Harbour on the Caribbean island of Antigua and Barbuda, was built in the early 18th century. It is the only continuously working Georgian era dockyard in the world, named after Admiral Horatio Nelson, who lived there from 1784 to 1787. The dockyard was abandoned by the British Royal Navy in 1889 but remains a significant cultural heritage site and marina.
- Battle of Vertières
On 18 November 1803, the Haitian revolutionary army defeated French forces at Vertières in the final major battle of the Haitian Revolution, ending France's attempt to regain control of Saint-Domingue and paving the way for Haiti's independence.
South Asia
Showing 6 of 36 events from this century
- Anglo-Nepalese War
The Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–1816) was a conflict between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Nepal, sparked by territorial disputes and expansionist ambitions. Fought in the rugged Himalayas, the war saw fierce Nepalese resistance under commanders like Amar Singh Thapa, and early British setbacks followed by advances under leaders such as Major General David Ochterlony. The war ended with the Treaty of Sugauli.
- Third Anglo-Maratha War
Between 1817 and 1819, the British East India Company fought the final large-scale conflict against the Maratha Empire. British forces, led by Governor-General Hastings, decimated the Maratha army despite being outnumbered. The war ended with the dissolution of the Maratha Empire and Company control over most of India.
- First Anglo-Burmese War
The First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826) was the first of three conflicts between the British Empire and the Burmese Konbaung dynasty. It began over control of northeastern India, with Burma initiating hostilities, and ended in a decisive British victory. Britain gained Assam, Manipur, Cachar, Jaintia, Arakan, and Tenasserim; Burma paid an indemnity of one million pounds sterling and signed a commercial treaty.
- Signing of the Treaty of Yandabo
On 24 February 1826, the Treaty of Yandabo was signed between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Burma, ending the First Anglo-Burmese War. The treaty was signed at Yandabo village, only 80 km from the Burmese capital Ava, without negotiations. British General Sir Archibald Campbell and Burmese Governor Maha Min Hla Kyaw Htin signed on behalf of their sides, with the Burmese forced to accept British terms.
- Remodeling and Enlargement of the Imperial City of Huế
In 1833, the Imperial City of Huế, the royal palace of Vietnam's Nguyễn dynasty, was remodeled and enlarged to its current scale. It is located in the center of the Huế citadel.
- Outbreak of the First Anglo-Afghan War
The First Anglo-Afghan War broke out in 1839, an armed conflict between the British Empire and the Emirate of Afghanistan lasting from 1839 to 1842. It was the first major clash of the 19th-century Great Game between Britain and Russia, sparked by regional rivalry and a succession dispute. The British invaded, occupied Kabul in August 1839, and reinstalled former King Shah Shujah, but ultimately suffered a catastrophic defeat.
West Asia
Showing 6 of 23 events from this century
- Founding of Dar ul-Funun
Around the mid-19th century, Amir Kabir, the grand vizier of Qajar Iran, established Dar ul-Funun in Tehran, the first modern institution of higher education in the country.
- Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828
From 1826 to 1828, the Russian Empire and Qajar Iran fought their last major military conflict over territorial disputes. Encouraged by Britain and pushed by the war party under Abbas Mirza, Iran sought to reclaim territories lost under the Treaty of Gulistan. Iran was defeated, and the Treaty of Turkmenchay resulted in further territorial losses.
- Treaty of Turkmenchay signed
On 10 February 1828, Qajar Iran and the Russian Empire signed the Treaty of Turkmenchay, ending the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828. Iran ceded parts of the South Caucasus, including present-day Armenia and southern Azerbaijan. The Russian representative threatened to occupy Tehran within five days unless the treaty was signed. It was the second unequal treaty after the Treaty of Gulistan, further affirming Russian control over former Iranian territories.
- First Egyptian–Ottoman War begins
In 1831, a military conflict broke out between the Ottoman Empire and Egypt, triggered by Muhammad Ali Pasha's demand for control of Greater Syria as a reward for aiding the Sultan during the Greek War of Independence. Egyptian forces advanced as far north as Kütahya, temporarily gaining control of Syria.
- Outbreak of the Second Egyptian–Ottoman War
In 1839, war broke out again between the Ottoman Empire and Egypt under Muhammad Ali over control of Syria. The fighting took place mainly in Syria and lasted until 1841.
- Founding of the Tbilisi Opera and Ballet Theatre
In 1851, the Tbilisi Opera and Ballet Theatre was founded in what is now the centre of Tbilisi, the capital of Georgia. The opera house is the main venue for opera and ballet in Georgia and is among the oldest in Eastern Europe.
Sub-Saharan Africa
Showing 6 of 22 events from this century
- Establishment of the Congo Free State
In 1885, King Leopold II of Belgium proclaimed the Congo Free State as his private possession after the Berlin Conference, replacing the International Association of the Congo. Located in Central Africa, it was an absolute monarchy under his personal rule, in a personal union with Belgium, initiating over two decades of exploitation and atrocities in the Congo Basin.
- Atrocities in the Congo Free State
Between 1885 and 1908, in the Congo Free State under the personal rule of King Leopold II of Belgium, colonial administrators enforced harsh labour policies to collect natural rubber, resulting in widespread atrocities. These, combined with disease, famine, and displacement, led to a sharp decline in the Congolese population, estimated in the millions to tens of millions.
- University of Cape Town founded
In 1829, the South African College was established in Cape Town, later evolving into the University of Cape Town. As the oldest university in South Africa and the second oldest surviving in Africa, it laid the groundwork for higher education in the region, with English as its medium of instruction, and produced numerous alumni including Nobel laureates.
- Battle of Blood River
On 16 December 1838, Zulu King Dingane broke the peace agreement with the Voortrekkers and attacked them under Andries Pretorius. The Voortrekkers won with overwhelming odds; Zulu casualties were over 3,000, and only three Voortrekkers were lightly wounded.
- University of South Africa Becomes Africa's Largest University System
The University of South Africa is a university in South Africa and the largest university system in Africa, attracting one-third of the country's higher education students. With over 300,000 students, including international students from 130 countries, it is one of the world's largest universities and the only tertiary institution in Africa to bear the country's name.
- Battle of Rorke's Drift
On 22–23 January 1879, during the Anglo-Zulu War, a small British garrison under the command of Lieutenants John Chard and Gonville Bromhead successfully defended the mission station and supply depot at Rorke's Drift against a large force of Zulu warriors.
Oceania
Showing 6 of 21 events from this century
- Musket Wars
The Musket Wars were a series of large-scale armed conflicts among Māori tribes in early 19th-century New Zealand, involving up to 3,000 battles and raids from around 1807 to 1842. Sparked by an intertribal arms race following the acquisition of muskets, the wars sought territorial gain or revenge, causing tens of thousands of casualties and enslavements, profoundly altering tribal boundaries, and influencing later New Zealand Wars.
- Outbreak of the Black War
In the mid-1820s, violent conflict erupted between British colonists and Aboriginal Tasmanians, known as the Black War. The guerrilla warfare lasted until 1832, resulting in the deaths of some 600 to 900 Aboriginal people and over 200 colonists, leading to the near-extermination of the Indigenous population, which some scholars consider a genocide.
- New Zealand Wars outbreak
The New Zealand Wars broke out in 1845, a series of armed conflicts between the British colonial government and Māori. The root cause was disputes over the sale of Māori land to British settlers, with the conflicts lasting until 1872 across multiple campaigns.
- Founding of Queen Victoria Market
The Queen Victoria Market began operations in 1878 in central Melbourne, Australia. Covering over seven hectares, it became the largest open-air market in the Southern Hemisphere and a major landmark for the city.
- Construction of the Royal Exhibition Building
Built in 1879 for the 1880-81 Melbourne International Exhibition, the Royal Exhibition Building is located in Carlton Gardens, Melbourne. It was part of the international exhibition movement of the 19th century and later hosted the opening of the first Australian Parliament. The main Great Hall survived and was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2004.
- Melbourne International Exhibition (1880)
The eighth officially recognised World's fair was held in Melbourne, Australia, from 1 October 1880 to 30 April 1881. It was the first official World's Fair in the Southern Hemisphere and the second in Australia, with 33 participating nations. The main venue, the Royal Exhibition Building, later became a World Heritage Site. Visitor numbers ranged between 1.33 and 1.459 million, and the event closed with a financial loss.
North Africa
Showing 6 of 21 events from this century
- French conquest of Algeria
Between 1830 and 1904, France launched a military invasion and prolonged war of conquest in Algeria. In June 1830, French forces landed near Algiers, quickly seizing the capital and coastal areas. Over the following decades, despite internal political strife, France repeatedly reinforced its military presence to suppress resistance in the interior, gradually extending control southward into the Sahara, and finalizing its colonial borders by 1904.
- Franco-Moroccan War
In 1844, a war broke out between France and Morocco, primarily triggered by Morocco's harboring of Algerian resistance leader Abd al-Kader and its refusal to cease support for his struggle against French colonial rule. Under King Louis-Philippe, France dispatched a naval squadron to the Moroccan coast for military operations.
- Construction of the Muhammad Ali Mosque begins
The Muhammad Ali Mosque began construction in 1848 within the Citadel of Cairo, commissioned by the Ottoman governor of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha. Its design reflects Ottoman and European styles, and it is often called the Alabaster Mosque due to the extensive use of alabaster on its walls.
- Hispano-Moroccan War
Spain declared war on Morocco on 22 October 1859 over a dispute about the borders of Ceuta. Fighting took place in northern Morocco. After a Spanish victory at the Battle of Tetuán, Morocco sued for peace, and the conflict ended with a treaty on 26 April 1860.
- Urabi revolt
The Urabi revolt was a nationalist uprising in the Khedivate of Egypt from 1879 to 1882, led by Colonel Ahmed Urabi, seeking to depose Khedive Tewfik Pasha and end British and French influence. It concluded with the Anglo-Egyptian War and the British takeover of Egypt.
- Mahdist War
The Mahdist War (1881–1899) was a colonial conflict between the Mahdist Sudanese, led by Muhammad Ahmad who proclaimed himself the Mahdi, and the forces of Egypt and later Britain. Beginning in 1881, the Mahdists overthrew Egyptian rule in Sudan and established a Mahdist state. The British later joined the conflict alongside Egypt, eventually defeating the Mahdists. The war involved other powers such as Italy, the Congo Free State, Ethiopia, and France, and was marked by internal rebellions and famine.
Central Asian steppe
Showing 4 of 4 events from this century
- Battle of Geok Tepe (1880–1881)
In 1880–1881, the Russian Empire launched a campaign to conquer the Teke Turkmens. The decisive Battle of Geok Tepe resulted in a Russian victory, giving them control over most of present-day Turkmenistan and nearly completing the Russian conquest of Central Asia. This battle was a pivotal event in the region's incorporation into the Russian Empire.
- Construction of Ipatiev House
A merchant's house was built in Yekaterinburg in the late 19th century, later known as Ipatiev House after its owner. The building gained notoriety as the site where the last Russian Tsar Nicholas II and his family were executed in 1918, and was demolished in 1977.
- Outbreak of the Russian Conquest of Central Asia
In 1839, the Russian Empire launched a military campaign to conquer Central Asia, continuing its eastward expansion. The invasion aimed to annex the region, which later largely became Russian Turkestan under imperial rule.
- Siege of Petropavlovsk
From August 30 to September 5, 1854, during the Crimean War's Pacific theatre, British and French naval forces attacked the Russian port of Petropavlovsk on the Kamchatka peninsula but failed to capture it. Russian casualties were about 115, British 105, and French 104. The Russians won.
Years in the 19th century
85 years in this century have enough records for a page of their own.
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