The world in
What happened in 1812?
21 events across 5 world regions, each with its sources.
Europe
French invasion of RussiaIn 1812, Napoleon led the French army and its allies to invade the Russian Empire, triggered by Russia's withdrawal from the Continental System. Crossing the Niemen in June, they occupied Moscow after the Battle of Borodino, but were forced to retreat due to supply shortages and severe winter, suffering devastating losses. The campaign claimed around a million lives in under six months.
- Industrial Revolution
A transition in manufacturing processes that began in Great Britain around the 1760s and spread to continental Europe and the United States by about 1840. It was marked by the replacement of human and animal power with machinery and of handicraft with factory production, signaling a historic shift from agrarian to industrial society.
SourcesWikipedia ↗
Napoleonic WarsThe Napoleonic Wars were a series of global military conflicts from 1803 to 1815 between the First French Empire and shifting coalitions of European powers. Originating in the political upheavals following the French Revolution, the wars primarily took place in Europe but extended to the Middle East, Asia-Pacific, and beyond. They are divided into seven major campaigns, including the War of the Third Coalition and the Peninsular War. Napoleon was ultimately defeated, the French Empire dissolved, and the European balance of power restored.
SourcesWikipedia ↗Image: Jacques-Louis David / Public domain ↗
- Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil
In November 1807, the Portuguese royal family and nearly 10,000 attendants sailed from Lisbon to the colony of Brazil. Departure was delayed to 29 November, just two days before Napoleonic forces invaded Portugal. This relocation kept the Portuguese court in Brazil for over a decade, profoundly influencing Brazil's path to independence.
SourcesWikipedia ↗
Battle of BorodinoOn 7 September 1812, during Napoleon’s invasion of Russia, the Grande Armée fought the Imperial Russian Army at Borodino. Napoleon I and Mikhail Kutuzov commanded the opposing forces. It was the largest single-day battle of the Napoleonic Wars, involving over 250,000 troops and causing at least 70,000 casualties.
SourcesWikipedia ↗Image: Auguste-Joseph Desarnot / Public domain ↗
Battle of BerezinaFrom 26 to 29 November 1812, during the retreat from Moscow, Napoleon's Grande Armée was attacked from three sides by Russian forces while crossing the Berezina River. Despite heavy losses, Napoleon managed to cross with the surviving remnants and continue the retreat toward Poland.
SourcesWikipedia ↗Image: Original uploader was Robert Prummel at nl.wikipedia / Public domain ↗
Battle of SmolenskIn August 1812, Napoleon led the Grande Armée against Russian forces under Barclay de Tolly and Bagration at Smolensk during the invasion of Russia. After fierce fighting, the Russians withdrew at night after setting fires. French artillery bombardment burned the city, destroying most buildings, with heavy casualties on both sides.
SourcesWikipedia ↗Image: Jean-Charles Langlois / Public domain ↗
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Caucasian WarThe Caucasian War was a 19th-century conflict of conquest by the Russian Empire against various peoples of the North Caucasus, lasting from 1817 to 1864. Imam Shamil led fierce resistance, repeatedly repelling Russian attacks, until the fall of Gunib and his capture in 1859. The war ended with the final subjugation of the Circassians and the annexation of the region in 1864.
The Eighth Russo-Turkish War breaks outIn 1806, hostilities resumed between the Russian and Ottoman Empires, marking the eighth such conflict, partly prompted by the Serbian uprising. The war lasted until 1812, when peace was concluded on the eve of Napoleon's invasion of Russia.
SourcesWikipedia ↗Image: Alexey Bogolyubov / Public domain ↗
Outbreak of the Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)In 1804, war broke out between the Persian Qajar dynasty and the Russian Empire over territorial disputes including Georgia. The newly enthroned Persian king Fath Ali Shah sought to consolidate Persia's northernmost territories, while Russian Tsar Alexander I was equally determined to control the disputed regions. The conflict ended in 1813 with the Treaty of Gulistan, forcing Persia to cede vast territories.
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Outbreak of the Russo-Circassian WarIn 1763, the Russian Empire invaded Circassia and occupied Mozdok, prompting the Circassian people to organize a resistance movement to preserve their independence, marking the beginning of the Russo-Circassian War. This conflict became the longest war in the history of the Caucasus and of Russia, ending in 1864 with the defeat of Circassian forces.
SourcesWikipedia ↗Image: Heinrich Ambros Eckert / Public domain ↗
Anglo-Russian War beginsThe Anglo-Russian War began in 1807 during the Napoleonic Wars, following Russia's signing of the Treaty of Tilsit with France. Hostilities were limited primarily to minor naval actions in the Baltic and Barents Seas, ending in 1812.
SourcesWikipedia ↗Image: Blinov, Leonid Demyanovich (1868-1903) / Public domain ↗
Signing of the Treaty of BucharestOn 28 May 1812, the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire signed the Treaty of Bucharest, ending the Russo‑Turkish War that had begun in 1806. The Ottomans were keen to avoid entanglement in the coming conflict between Napoleonic France and Russia, while Russia wanted a free hand for its imminent war with France, leading both sides to compromise. The treaty resulted in only a slight territorial loss for the Ottomans and became the basis for future Russo‑Ottoman relations.
SourcesWikipedia ↗Image: Spiridon Ion Cepleanu / CC BY-SA 3.0 ↗
Opening of the Alexander GardensAlexander Gardens opened to the public in Moscow. Situated along the western Kremlin wall, it stretches 865 metres and comprises three separate gardens, making it one of the city's earliest parks.
SourcesWikipedia ↗Image: Минеева Ю. (Julmin) / CC BY-SA 1.0 ↗
North America
Spanish American wars of independenceA series of armed conflicts in the early 19th century across Spanish American colonies, aiming to end Spanish rule and achieve political independence. The conflicts were fought primarily between Royalists, who supported a unitary Spanish monarchy, and Patriots, who sought autonomy or independence. This ultimately led to the separation and independence of most of Spanish America, occurring roughly between 1808 and 1833, and closely linked to the Napoleonic Wars and the Peninsular War in Spain.
War of 1812The War of 1812 was launched by the United States against the United Kingdom and its allies amid the Napoleonic Wars, fought mainly in North America and at sea. The United States declared war on 18 June 1812. Although peace terms were set in the Treaty of Ghent in December 1814, the war officially ended only after U.S. Senate ratification on 17 February 1815.
SourcesWikipedia ↗Image: Michel Felice Corne (1752-1845) / Public domain ↗
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Founding of Fort RossIn 1812, the Russians established the settlement of Fort Ross, originally Fortress Ross, in what is now Sonoma County, California, USA. Operated by the Russian-American Company, it became the southernmost Russian outpost in North America and the first multi-ethnic community north of the Spanish missions in the region, bringing together Native Californians, Russians, and Native Alaskans.
New York City Hall CompletedNew York City Hall was completed in 1812 in New York City, later becoming the oldest city hall in the United States still in use. It houses the Mayor's office and the City Council, and stands in City Hall Park in Lower Manhattan.
Oceania
Musket WarsThe Musket Wars were a series of large-scale armed conflicts among Māori tribes in early 19th-century New Zealand, involving up to 3,000 battles and raids from around 1807 to 1842. Sparked by an intertribal arms race following the acquisition of muskets, the wars sought territorial gain or revenge, causing tens of thousands of casualties and enslavements, profoundly altering tribal boundaries, and influencing later New Zealand Wars.
SourcesWikipedia ↗Image: Merrett, Joseph Jenner, 1816-1854. / Public domain ↗
South Asia
Construction of the Flag Tower of HanoiThe Flag Tower of Hanoi was built around the early 19th century in Hanoi, Vietnam, as part of the Imperial Citadel of Thăng Long. The tower stands 33.4 m tall (41 m with the flagstaff) and later became a symbol of the city.
North Africa
Construction of Moulay Slimane MosqueIn 1812, the Moulay Slimane Mosque was built in the medina of Rabat, Morocco, under the 'Alawi sultan Moulay Slimane, after whom it is named. It is the second-largest mosque north of the Andalusian wall, at the intersection of Souika Street and Sidi Fateh Street, near Bab Bouiba gate.
Around 1812
These are known only to the century, not to the year. They are listed separately so a rough date is never mistaken for an exact one.
- Emergence of the Enlightenment
- Museum Island construction begins
- Completion of Dom Pedro V Theatre
- Establishment of Tomioka Silk Mill and Related Industrial Heritage
- Construction of Hôtel Solvay begins
- Founding of Kulangsu as an International Settlement
- Construction of the Four Hydraulic Boat Lifts on the Canal du Centre begins
- Founding of Nelson's Dockyard