Century overview
The world in the 16th century
1501 – 1600. 325 events across 10 regions. Below, the century’s most significant events by region — what each part of the world was doing during the same stretch of time.
Europe
Showing 6 of 158 events from this century
- Outbreak of the Protestant Reformation
In 1517, the Protestant Reformation broke out in Western Christianity. Initiated by theologians like Martin Luther, the movement posed a religious and political challenge to the papacy and Catholic authority, seeking to return to the roots of Christianity. It marked the beginning of Protestantism, the end of the Middle Ages, and the start of the early modern period.
- Magellan-Elcano Expedition Departs
In 1519, a Spanish expedition planned and initially led by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan departed from Spain, aiming to find a western route to the Moluccas. The expedition consisted of five ships with about 235 to 280 men. After Magellan's death in the Philippines, Juan Sebastián Elcano took command and brought the sole surviving ship Victoria back to Spain in 1522, completing the first circumnavigation of the globe.
- Signing of the Treaty of Madrid
On 14 January 1526, King Francis I of France and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V signed a peace treaty in Madrid, Spain, ending the Italian War of 1521–1526. The treaty was part of the wider Italian Wars, arising from hostility between France and the Habsburgs. It required France to renounce claims in Italy and cede territories such as Burgundy.
- Scientific Revolution
In the 16th and 17th centuries, a Scientific Revolution took place in Europe, with breakthroughs in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry, altering the human understanding of nature. It marked the emergence of modern science, breaking with Greek traditions, embracing a mechanistic worldview, integrating mathematics, and emphasizing new evidence.
- Council of Trent
The Council of Trent opened in 1545, marking the Catholic Church's definitive response to the Protestant Reformation. Convened intermittently until 1563, its decrees profoundly shaped modern Catholic doctrine, organization, and spirituality, embodying the ideals of the Counter-Reformation.
- St. Basil's Cathedral foundation laid
In 1555, construction began on St. Basil's Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow, ordered by Tsar Ivan the Terrible to commemorate Russia's capture of Kazan and Astrakhan. Adjacent to the Kremlin, the Orthodox church became one of Russia's most iconic cultural symbols and, upon its initial completion, the tallest building in Moscow.
East Asia
Showing 6 of 55 events from this century
- Construction of the Badaling Section of the Great Wall
The Badaling section of the Great Wall was begun around the early 16th century, about 80 km northwest of Beijing. Its construction, including a military outpost, aimed to strengthen the northern defenses of the capital. The strategic pass lies at a rugged site with a summit of around 1015 meters. It later became the most visited part of the Great Wall.
- Tamaudun Mausoleum Foundation
In 1501, Ryukyuan King Shō Shin built Tamaudun near Shuri Castle to reinter his father, King Shō En. It is the royal mausoleum of the Second Shō Dynasty and the largest gabled tomb in the Ryukyus, later designated a World Heritage Site.
- Discovery of the Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine
The Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine was discovered and began operation in the first half of the 16th century, located in Ōda, Shimane Prefecture, on Japan's Honshu island. It was the largest silver mine in Japanese history and operated for nearly four hundred years until its closure in 1923. At its peak in the early 17th century, it produced one-third of the world's silver.
- Founding of Sosu Seowon
Sosu Seowon was founded in 1543 by Chu Sebung in Yeongju, Gyeongsang Province, Korea. It is the oldest extant private Confucian academy in Korea. As a key site for the propagation of Neo-Confucianism during the Joseon dynasty, it was later recognized as one of the five major seowons and inscribed as part of the UNESCO World Heritage site 'Seowon, Korean Neo-Confucian Academies' in 2019.
- Ashio Copper Mine Opening
The Ashio Copper Mine began operations in the Kantō region of Japan around the mid‑16th century, later becoming one of the world's largest copper mines. In the 1880s its pollution caused Japan's first major environmental disaster, spurring early activism; it also witnessed miners' riots in 1907 and forced labour during World War II before closing in 1973.
- Battles of Kawanakajima
During Japan's Sengoku period, Takeda Shingen of Kai Province and Uesugi Kenshin of Echigo Province fought a series of battles from 1553 to 1564 for control of the Kawanakajima plain in northern Shinano Province. The area, situated between the Chikuma and Sai rivers, held strategic importance. The conflict began after Shingen conquered Shinano, ousting local lords Ogasawara Nagatoki and Murakami Yoshikiyo, who sought help from Kenshin. Five battles occurred, with the fourth in 1561 being the largest. These battles epitomized the long-standing rivalry between the two daimyos and influenced the Sengoku power balance.
Central & South America
Showing 6 of 34 events from this century
- Construction Begins on the Government Palace
The Government Palace, also known as the House of Pizarro, stands on the north side of the Plaza Mayor in Lima, Peru. The site was originally a large indigenous burial ground. In 1535, Governor Francisco Pizarro of New Castile ordered the construction of a governor's palace there, establishing the foundation for what would become the seat of the Peruvian government.
- Founding of the Colonial City of Santo Domingo
In 1498, the Colonial City of Santo Domingo was founded on the banks of the Ozama River, becoming the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in the Americas. Its grid layout served as a model for town planning across the New World.
- Foundation of the Cathedral of Santa María la Menor
The Cathedral of Santa María la Menor was founded in 1504 in Santo Domingo and completed in 1550. It is the oldest existing cathedral in the Americas and the first diocese established in the New World.
- Founding of Coro
In 1527, Spanish colonizer Juan de Ampíes founded the settlement of Santa Ana de Coro on the northwestern coast of present-day Venezuela. One of the oldest cities in Venezuela, it later became an important colonial outpost.
- Battle of Cajamarca
On November 16, 1532, a small Spanish force led by Francisco Pizarro ambushed and captured Inca ruler Atahualpa in the plaza of Cajamarca, killing thousands of his attendants and causing the Inca army outside the town to flee. The event initiated the Spanish conquest of Peru.
- Construction of La Fortaleza
The Spanish built a fortress on San Juan Islet to defend San Juan Bay and the harbor. It later became the official residence of the Governor of Puerto Rico, the oldest executive seat in continuous use in the Americas.
South Asia
Showing 6 of 20 events from this century
- Battle of Diu
On 3 February 1509, the Portuguese fleet defeated a joint fleet of the Sultan of Gujarat, the Mamlûk Burji Sultanate of Egypt, and the Zamorin of Calicut near Diu, India, with support from the Ottoman Empire, Venice, and Ragusa. The battle secured Portuguese naval dominance in the Indian Ocean, pivotal for its eastern trade empire.
- First Battle of Panipat
On 21 April 1526 at Panipat in North India, Babur’s forces defeated Sultan Ibrahim Lodi. The victory ended the Delhi Sultanate and ushered in Mughal rule; Babur’s army employed firearms and artillery, making it one of the subcontinent’s early gunpowder engagements.
- Founding of the Mughal Empire
In 1526, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last Sultan of Delhi, at the First Battle of Panipat, founding the Mughal Empire. The empire was an early modern monarchy in South Asia, with a royal lineage of Turco-Mongol origin from the Persianate Timurid dynasty. Its founding marked the expansion of Timurid power into South Asia, beginning over three centuries of rule.
- Second Battle of Panipat
On 5 November 1556, Mughal forces under Bairam Khan defeated the Afghan army led by Hemu at Panipat. Hemu had recently captured Delhi and crowned himself Vikramaditya, but this battle ended his brief rule. The Mughals subsequently recaptured Delhi and Agra, re-establishing control over northern India.
- Founding of Se Cathedral, Goa
In 1562, the foundation stone of Se Cathedral was laid in Old Goa, Portuguese India. Belonging to the Archdiocese of Goa and Daman, one of Asia's oldest Catholic dioceses, it became India's first cathedral and Goa's most renowned religious edifice, later forming part of the UNESCO-listed Churches and Convents of Goa.
- Battle of Talikota
The Battle of Talikota (also known as Rakshasi-Tangadi) was fought in 1565 between the Vijayanagara Empire and an alliance of Deccan sultanates. The Vijayanagara army was devastated, and its chief minister Aliya Rama Raya was killed. The capital and major cities were sacked, leading to the collapse of the empire and reconfiguring Deccan politics.
West Asia
Showing 6 of 18 events from this century
- Founding of the Safavid dynasty
Ismail I founded the Safavid dynasty, establishing his rule over Iran from 1501. The dynasty adopted Twelver Shi'ism as the official religion, marking the beginning of modern Iranian history and a crucial turning point in Islamic history.
- Battle of Chaldiran
On 23 August 1514, the Battle of Chaldiran ended in a decisive Ottoman victory over the Safavids. The Ottomans annexed Eastern Anatolia and Upper Mesopotamia from Safavid Iran, establishing their dominance in the region. The clash also opened a 41-year Ottoman–Safavid struggle that concluded with the Peace of Amasya in 1555.
- Battle of Marj Dabiq
On 24 August 1516, the Ottoman Empire decisively defeated the Mamluk Sultanate at Marj Dabiq, north of Aleppo. The victory gave the Ottomans control of Syria, opened the way to Egypt, and led to the destruction of the Mamluk Sultanate.
- Siege of Rhodes
In 1522 the Ottoman Empire returned to Rhodes for a second siege and prevailed, forcing the Knights Hospitaller to leave the island; Ottoman control of Rhodes—and its position in the Eastern Mediterranean—was thereby strengthened. The first assault in 1480 had failed. The displaced knights went to Sicily and later settled in Malta.
- Outbreak of the Ottoman–Safavid War of 1532–1555
In 1532, a new war broke out between the Ottoman Empire, led by Suleiman the Magnificent, and the Safavid Empire, ruled by Tahmasp I. It was one of many conflicts between the two arch-rivals. After years of fighting, the Ottoman Empire confirmed its territorial gains in the Peace of Amasya.
- Outbreak of the Fourth Ottoman–Venetian War
In 1570, the Fourth Ottoman–Venetian War, also known as the War of Cyprus, broke out between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice. Venice was supported by the Holy League, a coalition of Christian states formed by the pope, including Spain, Genoa, Savoy, the Knights Hospitaller, and Tuscany. The war lasted from 1570 to 1573.
North Africa
Showing 6 of 17 events from this century
- Ottoman–Mamluk War of 1516–17
From 1516 to 1517, the Ottoman Empire and the Mamluk Sultanate fought a second major war. The Mamluk Sultanate fell, and its territories—Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and the Hejaz—were incorporated into the Ottoman Empire. This war transformed the Ottoman Empire from a power centered in Anatolia and the Balkans into a vast empire encompassing the traditional Islamic heartlands, including Mecca, Cairo, and Damascus.
- Founding of the Royal Chapel of Granada
Around 1506, the foundation stone of the Royal Chapel of Granada, a mausoleum for Isabella I and Ferdinand II, was laid. Built in the Isabelline style, it adjoins Granada Cathedral and later became the tomb of the Catholic Monarchs.
- Conquest of Tunis (1535)
In 1535, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and his allies captured Tunis from the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman admiral Barbarossa had used the city as a base for raids against Italy and Spain. Although Barbarossa escaped, the victory limited Ottoman expansion in North Africa, and Spanish control of Tunis lasted until 1569.
- Battle of Djerba
In May 1560, an Ottoman fleet overwhelmed a Christian alliance of Spanish, Papal, Genoese, Maltese, and Neapolitan forces near Djerba, Tunisia. The allies lost 27 galleys, smaller vessels, and the island’s fortifications.
- Second Rebellion of the Alpujarras
Between 1568 and 1571, the Moriscos of the Kingdom of Granada staged a second rebellion against the Castilian Crown in the Alpujarras region. The uprising was directly triggered by Philip II's Pragmatic Sanction of 1567, which imposed forced assimilation of Morisco cultural practices.
- Battle of Alcácer Quibir
On 4 August 1578, allied forces of Portuguese King Sebastian and former Moroccan Sultan Abu Abdallah Mohammed II fought against the army of Moroccan Sultan Abd al-Malik I near Wadi al-Makhazin in northern Morocco. Due to the deaths of three monarchs in the battle, it is known as the "Battle of the Three Kings". The Moroccan army attacked fiercely and routed the Portuguese. Sebastian perished in the retreat, Abu Abdallah drowned, and Abd al-Malik died of illness. The defeat ended Portuguese attempts to conquer Morocco and severely weakened the Portuguese Empire.
North America
Showing 6 of 9 events from this century
- La Noche Triste
On the night of June 30, 1520, Hernán Cortés and his Spanish conquistadors, along with their native allies, were forced to flee the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan after the death of Emperor Moctezuma II. Pursued by Aztec warriors, they suffered heavy losses. This event marked a critical setback in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.
- National Palace Site Used as Seat of Mexican Ruling Power
The National Palace, on the east side of Mexico City's Plaza de la Constitución, has been a palace for Mexico's ruling class since the Aztec Empire and now houses the federal executive and presidential residence. Much of its building materials come from the original palace of Moctezuma II.
- El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro established
In 1598, the Spanish colonial authorities established El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro, a route of approximately 2,560 km linking Mexico City to San Juan Pueblo, New Mexico, primarily used for transporting silver from Zacatecas and other mines, as well as mercury imported from Europe.
- Founding of the Todos los Santos Convent and Church
The Franciscan Order began construction of the Todos los Santos convent and church in Zempoala, Mexico, completing the complex by the late 16th century.
- Earliest Spanish Record of Ohkay Owingeh (San Juan Pueblo)
Ohkay Owingeh, also known by its Spanish name San Juan de los Caballeros or as San Juan Pueblo, is a Pueblo village in present-day New Mexico, USA. When the Spanish arrived in the 16th century, they recorded the site under the name San Juan de los Caballeros, which retained official status from 1598. The location remains a federally recognized Native American tribe and is designated as a census‑designated place.
- Founding of San Miguel de Allende
San Miguel de Allende was founded in the mid-16th century in central Mexico, in the far eastern part of Guanajuato. It served as a frontier outpost during the Chichimeca War, witnessing early colonial clashes with Indigenous resistance. The town's name partly derives from Friar Juan de San Miguel, and it later became an important landmark of Mexican Independence.
Sub-Saharan Africa
Showing 6 of 7 events from this century
- Formation of the Sacred Mijikenda Kaya Forests
Around the 16th century, the Mijikenda people built fortified settlements known as kayas in scattered forest sites along the coast of present-day Kenya. These sacred forests served as ritual centres and ancestral abodes, embodying the core of Mijikenda cultural identity and cohesion.
- Ethiopian–Adal War
From 1529 to 1543, the Christian Ethiopian Empire fought the Muslim Adal Sultanate. Ethiopian forces were drawn from northern highland regions, while Adal's army included Harla, Somali, Afar, and Ottoman-backed gunmen. Portugal later sent musketeers to support Ethiopia. The war ended in a costly Ethiopian victory, weakening the empire and enabling the massive migration of Oromo people into the region.
- Construction of Fort Saint Anthony
In 1515, the Portuguese built Fort Saint Anthony near Axim in present-day Ghana as a trading post on the Gold Coast. The fort was later controlled by the Dutch and the British and involved in the slave trade.
- Chapel of Nossa Senhora de Baluarte
The Chapel of Nossa Senhora de Baluarte is located on the easternmost tip of the Island of Mozambique, within Stone Town. The chapel is situated outside Fort São Sebastião, accessible from the fort through a gate. The island lies off the coast of Mozambique in Africa.
- Establishment of Fort São Sebastião
Located in present-day Shama, Ghana, Fort São Sebastião was established around the early 16th century as the third oldest colonial fortification on the Gold Coast. It later became a significant site in the transatlantic slave trade and was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979.
- Construction of Fort Jesus
Fort Jesus was built by the Portuguese under the orders of King Felipe II of Spain, who also ruled as King of Portugal, on Mombasa Island in present-day Kenya. Designed by Italian architect Giovanni Battista Cairati, it was constructed to guard the Old Port of Mombasa and remains the only fort maintained by the Portuguese on the Swahili coast, recognized as a testament to the first successful attempt by a Western power to establish influence over Indian Ocean trade.
Central Asian steppe
Showing 4 of 4 events from this century
- Russian conquest of Siberia
From the late 16th to the 18th century, Russia, driven by the fur trade, gradually conquered the Khanate of Sibir and expanded eastward, led by merchants like the Stroganovs and Cossack leaders such as Yermak. They established forts, forced indigenous tribes into submission, and engaged in fierce conflicts, eventually incorporating most of Siberia into the Russian Empire.
- Outbreak of the First Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570)
In 1568, the Ottoman Empire and the Tsardom of Russia came into conflict over the Astrakhan Khanate, initiating the first of twelve Russo-Turkish wars. The hostilities centred on the Don-Volga-Astrakhan campaign of 1569, also known as the Astrakhan Expedition. The war represented a regional struggle for control of the lower Volga and the northern Caspian, setting the stage for centuries of rivalry between the two powers that would last until World War I.
- Construction of the Kukeldash Madrasah in Tashkent
In the late 16th century, the Shaybanid rulers built the Kukeldash Madrasah in Tashkent, making it the city's most important Islamic educational institution.
- Founding of Erdene Zuu Monastery
In 1585, Abadai Khan founded Erdene Zuu Monastery, the oldest surviving Buddhist monastery in Mongolia, on the site of the former capital Karakorum.
Oceania
Showing 3 of 3 events from this century
- Inauguration of the Manila galleon trade
In 1565, Spain established a trans-Pacific trade route linking Manila in the Philippines with Acapulco in Mexico. Spanish ships known as Manila galleons sailed once or twice a year, transporting large quantities of Chinese goods via the Philippines to the Americas and returning with American silver. This inaugurated a trade that lasted two and a half centuries.
- Founding of Vigan
Vigan, capital of Ilocos Sur province in the Philippines on the northwest coast of Luzon, was founded in the late 16th century. The city preserves the most intact Spanish colonial architecture in Asia, and its historic center was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1999.
- Completion of San Agustin Church
San Agustin Church, located within the walled city of Intramuros in Manila, was completed in the early 17th century. Under the Roman Catholic Order of Saint Augustine, it is the oldest stone church in the Philippines and a notable example of colonial Baroque architecture.
Years in the 16th century
11 years in this century have enough records for a page of their own.