The world in the 2nd century BC

200 BC–197 BCAthens

Fought from 200 to 197 BC, the war pitted Rome and its allies Pergamon, Rhodes, the Aetolian League, and Dardania against Macedon under Philip V. Philip was decisively defeated and forced to relinquish all possessions in southern Greece, Thrace, and Asia Minor. The Roman declaration of Greek freedom marked the beginning of major Roman intervention in the eastern Mediterranean.

168 BC

In 168 BC, the Roman Republic and the Kingdom of Macedon fought the Battle of Pydna, where the Roman army under Lucius Aemilius Paullus defeated King Perseus of Macedon, ending the Third Macedonian War. The defeat led to the fall of the Macedonian kingdom and the end of the Antigonid dynasty, marking a turning point as the flexibility of the Roman legion triumphed over the Macedonian phalanx and the Hellenistic era drew to a close.

197 BC

In 197 BC, a decisive battle took place in Thessaly between the Roman army led by Titus Quinctius Flamininus and the Macedonian forces of Philip V. The Roman victory brought the Second Macedonian War to an end and established Roman influence in Greece.

192 BC–188 BCAthens

A war between the Roman Republic and the Seleucid Empire, fought in the late 190s BCE across Greece, the Aegean Sea, and Asia Minor. Rome and its allies engaged the forces of Antiochus III, culminating in a Roman victory.

191 BC

On 24 April 191 BC, Roman consul Manius Acilius Glabrio led his legions to victory over the Seleucid king Antiochus III and his Aetolian allies at Thermopylae. This first major battle of the Roman–Seleucid War forced Antiochus to flee Greece, paving the way for Roman hegemony in the eastern Mediterranean.

171 BC–168 BCIllyria

A war was fought between the Roman Republic and King Perseus of Macedon. Perseus, who succeeded in 179 BC, pursued anti-Roman policies, expanded his army, and allied with several Greek cities and tribes in Illyria and Thrace. In 172 BC, a Roman commission demanded concessions that would end his independence; upon refusal, Rome declared war. The conflict concluded with a Roman victory, ending Macedonian independence.

190 BC

The Battle of Magnesia took place around December 190 or January 189 BC near Magnesia ad Sipylum in Asia Minor. The Roman Republic, allied with the Kingdom of Pergamon under Eumenes II, and led by the consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus, faced the Seleucid Empire under Antiochus III the Great. Part of the Roman–Seleucid War, this decisive victory for Rome established its hegemony in the eastern Mediterranean.

188 BCApamea

In 188 BC, the Roman Republic and the Seleucid king Antiochus III signed the Treaty of Apamea, ending the Roman–Seleucid War. After Roman victories at Thermopylae and Magnesia, and joint naval triumphs with Rhodes, the Seleucids were forced to abandon all claims to Greece and Anatolia. The treaty imposed heavy indemnities and ceded most Seleucid territories in Asia Minor to Rome’s allies, Pergamon and Rhodes, reshaping the balance of power in the eastern Mediterranean and signaling Roman dominance in the Hellenistic world.

167 BC–160 BCLand of Israel

The Maccabean Revolt was a Jewish rebellion led by the Maccabees against the Seleucid Empire and Hellenistic influence from 167 to 160 BCE. The main phase occurred in Judea. The revolt eventually led to the establishment of the Hasmonean dynasty.

200 BC–101 BC

The Library of Pergamum was established around the 2nd century BC in the city of Pergamon, Asia Minor, developed by the Attalid dynasty. It was one of the most important libraries in the ancient world, second only to the Library of Alexandria in the Greek world.

200 BC–101 BC

The Hasmonean royal winter palaces are a complex of Second Temple period buildings discovered in the western plain of the Jericho valley, at Tulul Abu el-'Alayiq, near the entrance of Wadi Qelt, where a Roman road connects Jericho and Jerusalem.

200 BC–101 BC

The Temple of Zeus Megistos, situated on the acropolis of Dura-Europos, was one of the city's main temples. Its earliest construction phases may date back to the period of Greek rule, but due to incomplete excavation records and lack of ceramic data, the precise founding date remains uncertain.

149 BC–146 BC

In 149 BC, the Roman Republic initiated a nearly three-year siege of Carthage, the main engagement of the Third Punic War. After landing in Africa, the Romans rejected Carthaginian attempts at appeasement, even after the surrender of all weapons. The siege bogged down until early 147 BC, when Scipio Aemilianus was given command by special appointment. In the spring of 146 BC, the city fell, resulting in the destruction of Carthage and its empire.

149 BC–146 BCTunis

In 149 BCE, Carthage sent an army against Numidia without Rome's permission, violating the peace treaty. Rome used this as a pretext to launch a punitive expedition, beginning the Third Punic War. The war was fought entirely in Carthaginian territory, resulting in the destruction of Carthage.

111 BC–105 BCCirta

The Jugurthine War was an armed conflict between the Roman Republic and King Jugurtha of Numidia. Jugurtha succeeded his uncle Micipsa by overcoming rivals through assassination, war, and bribery, leading to war with Rome. The conflict resulted in Numidia's incorporation into Rome and the rise of Gaius Marius and Sulla.

200 BC–101 BCWorld Heritage

Around the 2nd century BC, the Libyco-Punic Mausoleum of Dougga was built in present-day Tunisia. It is one of the few well-preserved examples of royal Numidian architecture, reflecting a blend of local North African and Punic cultures.

200 BC–101 BCWorld Heritage

Around 400 BC, the Nazca culture began creating large geoglyphs in the southern Peruvian desert, known as the Nazca Lines. This practice continued until AD 500, with its early Paracas phase involving the removal of pebbles to expose lighter subsoil, forming various figures.

200 BC–101 BC

The Acaray site is located in the Huaura River Valley on the central coast of Peru. Its hilltop fortress was first built sometime around 900–200 BC. The military stronghold consists of three hilltops, each ringed with defensive walls featuring parapets and bastions. Lower lying occupation areas and extensive cemeteries surround it, but have been heavily looted.

200 BC–101 BC

In present-day San Isidro district of Lima, Peru, a pre-Hispanic culture built a truncated pyramid-shaped site later known as Huaca Huallamarca (formerly Pan de Azúcar). Constructed towards the end of the 2nd century BCE, this founding event laid the groundwork for the site’s later significance as a ceremonial and funerary center.

200 BC–101 BCWorld Heritage

Jiaohe ruins were established in the 2nd century BC. Located in the Turpan Basin, the city used natural terrain and rammed earth construction. It was an important stop on the Silk Road, serving as the capital of the Jushi kingdom and later ruled by various powers. It was destroyed in the 14th century.

119 BCOrkhon Valley

In 119 BC, Han forces under Wei Qing and Huo Qubing launched a major strategic offensive north of the Gobi Desert against the Xiongnu heartland. The decisive Han victory permanently weakened the Xiongnu and secured long-term stability along the Han dynasty's northern frontier.

104 BC–101 BCFerghana Valley

Between 104 and 102 BC, the Han dynasty launched two military expeditions against the kingdom of Dayuan in the Ferghana Valley, driven by the desire for the celebrated 'heavenly horses' and broader geopolitical pressures from the Han-Xiongnu Wars. The conflict ended in a Han victory and temporary expansion of Han hegemony deep into Central Asia, ensuring the early flow of the Silk Road.

200 BC–101 BC

Around the 2nd century BC, the Bhaja Caves began to be excavated along a trade route in the Deccan region of western India. This group of 22 rock-cut Buddhist caves is noted for its early chaitya hall and vihara, showing the transition from wooden to rock-cut architecture, and includes multiple stupas.

200 BC–101 BCWorld Heritage

Around the 2nd century BCE, rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments began to be carved into the cliffs of the Vindhya range in present-day Maharashtra, India, during the Mauryan period under Ashoka's influence. These caves later became a major Buddhist site renowned for their paintings and sculptures, considered masterpieces of ancient Indian religious art.

200 BC–101 BCWorld Heritage

Around 200 BC, Emperor Gaozu of Han ordered Prime Minister Xiao He to build the Weiyang Palace in Chang'an as the main imperial palace and residence. Completed in about two years, it served as the administrative center for several dynasties over centuries.

132 BCHuzi (瓠子), lower Yellow River, near Dingtao, Shandong

During Emperor Wu's reign, the Yellow River breached its dyke at Dingtao, flooding the Juye Plain and diverting into the Si River before reaching the Huai and the Yellow Sea. An initial repair attempt failed, and the Han court deferred further action for decades, partly due to corruption and superstition, until the dyke was finally restored in 109 BC.